Nuclear Energy and Radiation Minerals

Nuclear energy is experiencing a global renaissance as governments recognize its potential to provide reliable, low-carbon baseload electricity. From conventional pressurized water reactors to advanced small modular reactors and fusion research facilities, nuclear technology depends on a specialized set of critical minerals whose unique nuclear properties, neutron absorption cross-sections, radiation resistance, and thermal stability, make them irreplaceable. The supply chains for these minerals are strategically sensitive, intersecting with both civilian energy policy and military nuclear programs.

Uranium: The Nuclear Fuel

Uranium is the fundamental fuel for nuclear fission reactors. Natural uranium, composed of 99.3 percent U-238 and 0.7 percent fissile U-235, must be mined, milled into yellowcake (U3O8), converted to uranium hexafluoride (UF6), enriched to increase the U-235 concentration to 3 to 5 percent for light water reactors, and fabricated into ceramic fuel pellets encased in metal cladding. This multi-step supply chain involves specialized facilities in a limited number of countries.

Kazakhstan is the world's largest uranium producer, accounting for approximately 43 percent of global mine output, followed by Namibia, Canada, Australia, and Uzbekistan. Russia, through its state-owned Rosatom corporation, controls approximately 43 percent of global uranium enrichment capacity, a strategic position that has come under intense scrutiny following the invasion of Ukraine. The United States, which operates the world's largest fleet of nuclear reactors, imports approximately 95 percent of the uranium it consumes, creating a dependence that Congress has moved to address through the Prohibiting Russian Uranium Imports Act and funding for domestic enrichment capacity.

Advanced reactor designs, including high-temperature gas-cooled reactors and some small modular reactor concepts, require high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU) enriched to between 5 and 20 percent U-235. As of 2024, Russia is the only commercial supplier of HALEU, a bottleneck that threatens the deployment timeline for next-generation nuclear technology in the West. The US Department of Energy has invested in developing domestic HALEU production through centrifuge enrichment at the Piketon, Ohio facility and other initiatives.

Zirconium: The Fuel Cladding

Zirconium alloys, particularly Zircaloy-2 and Zircaloy-4, are the standard cladding material for nuclear fuel rods in light water reactors. Zirconium is selected for this application because of its remarkably low neutron absorption cross-section, meaning it allows neutrons to pass through the cladding without being captured, which would reduce reactor efficiency. Zirconium also exhibits excellent corrosion resistance in the high-temperature, high-pressure water environment inside a reactor core.

Zirconium for nuclear applications must be rigorously separated from hafnium, a chemically similar element that co-occurs naturally with zirconium at concentrations of 1 to 3 percent. While hafnium's presence is acceptable in most industrial zirconium applications, nuclear-grade zirconium must contain less than 100 parts per million of hafnium because hafnium has a neutron absorption cross-section approximately 600 times greater than zirconium. The separation process, typically performed using solvent extraction or extractive distillation, is technically demanding and capacity-limited. Australia and South Africa are major zircon sand producers, while the fabrication of nuclear-grade zirconium tubing is concentrated in France, the United States, Russia, and China.

Hafnium: Neutron Absorption for Reactor Control

The same property that makes hafnium an unwanted contaminant in zirconium cladding makes it invaluable for reactor control applications. Hafnium's extremely high thermal neutron absorption cross-section allows it to be used in control rods that regulate the fission reaction by absorbing excess neutrons. Hafnium control rods are used extensively in naval nuclear reactors powering submarines and aircraft carriers, where their long service life and reliability under extreme conditions are critical advantages.

Hafnium is produced exclusively as a byproduct of nuclear-grade zirconium refining, meaning its supply is inherently linked to zirconium demand. Global hafnium production is estimated at only 60 to 80 metric tons per year, making it one of the rarest commercially produced metals. Beyond nuclear control rods, hafnium is used in superalloys for jet engine turbine blades and as a component of high-k dielectric materials in advanced semiconductor manufacturing. This limited production and diverse demand create a tight market where price and availability can fluctuate significantly.

Beryllium: Moderator and Reflector

Beryllium serves as a neutron moderator and reflector in certain reactor designs, particularly research reactors and compact military reactors. Beryllium's low atomic mass makes it effective at slowing fast neutrons to thermal energies where they are more likely to cause fission, while its relatively low neutron absorption cross-section means it does not waste neutrons in the process. Beryllium oxide is also used as a high-performance ceramic in nuclear applications requiring thermal conductivity and radiation resistance.

The United States is the dominant global producer of beryllium metal, with Materion Corporation operating the primary supply chain. Beryllium mining and processing require stringent health and safety protocols because beryllium dust and fumes can cause chronic beryllium disease (berylliosis), a serious lung condition. This health hazard limits the number of facilities willing and able to process beryllium, contributing to supply chain concentration.

Boron: Shielding and Emergency Shutdown

Boron, specifically the boron-10 isotope, is one of the most effective neutron absorbers available and is used extensively in nuclear reactor shielding, control systems, and emergency shutdown mechanisms. Borated water is used as a chemical shim in pressurized water reactors to fine-tune reactivity. Boron carbide (B4C) is used in control rod assemblies and as a neutron shielding material in reactor design. Borated stainless steel and borated polyethylene are used for spent fuel storage and transportation cask shielding.

Turkey holds the world's largest boron reserves and is the dominant producer through state-owned Eti Maden, accounting for approximately 60 percent of global boron production. The United States (through Rio Tinto's Boron, California operation) and Russia are also significant producers. While the total boron market is large due to non-nuclear applications in glass, ceramics, agriculture, and detergents, the production of enriched boron-10 for nuclear applications is a specialized activity that adds another layer of supply chain complexity.

Fusion Energy Materials

The pursuit of nuclear fusion energy introduces new mineral requirements that differ significantly from fission technology. Tritium breeding blankets in fusion reactors will require lithium, as lithium-6 is transmuted into tritium when bombarded with neutrons. The structural materials for fusion reactor first walls and blankets must withstand intense neutron bombardment, and reduced-activation ferritic-martensitic steels containing tungsten and vanadium are leading candidates. Beryllium is being considered as a plasma-facing material and neutron multiplier in several fusion reactor designs.

Tungsten is the primary candidate for plasma-facing components in fusion reactors because of its exceptionally high melting point and resistance to sputtering. Superconducting magnets used to confine the fusion plasma require niobium-tin (Nb3Sn) and niobium-titanium (NbTi) superconducting wire, as well as large quantities of copper for stabilization and structural support. The ITER project in France, the world's largest fusion experiment, alone requires over 100,000 kilometers of superconducting wire. If fusion energy achieves commercial viability, it could become a significant new source of demand for lithium, tungsten, beryllium, niobium, and specialized superconducting materials.