United States: Critical Minerals Profile
World's largest consumer of critical minerals driving reshoring and supply chain diversification policies.
Overview
The United States occupies a unique position in the global critical minerals landscape as both a significant mineral producer and the world's largest consumer of many critical materials. Despite possessing substantial domestic reserves of lithium, rare earths, copper, beryllium, and other essential minerals, the country has become heavily dependent on imports for the processed and refined forms of most critical materials. This import dependence, particularly on China for rare earth elements, gallium, germanium, and processed lithium, has driven a sweeping policy response that includes the Inflation Reduction Act, the CHIPS and Science Act, and invocations of the Defense Production Act to stimulate domestic mineral production and processing. The U.S. Geological Survey maintains the official list of critical minerals, which was expanded to 50 commodities in 2022, reflecting the broadening scope of materials considered essential to economic and national security.
Key Minerals and Resources
United States's critical mineral profile is defined by its endowment of beryllium, copper, lithium, rare earths, molybdenum, helium, boron, and rhenium. These minerals position the country as an important participant in supply chains spanning the energy transition, advanced manufacturing, and defense sectors.
Mining and Production
The United States has a diverse but underdeveloped mining sector relative to its geological potential. Major active operations include the Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah, one of the world's largest open-pit mines, and the Mountain Pass rare earth mine in California, which is the only significant rare earth mining operation in the Western Hemisphere. Lithium production is centered on the Silver Peak brine operation in Nevada and the under-construction Thacker Pass mine, which will be one of the largest lithium mines in North America. Beryllium production from Materion Corporation's operations makes the U.S. the world's leading beryllium producer. However, the permitting process for new mines in the United States averages 7-10 years, significantly longer than in competing jurisdictions like Australia and Canada, and this regulatory timeline remains a major barrier to expanding domestic production.
Policy and Regulation
U.S. critical mineral policy has accelerated dramatically since 2020, driven by bipartisan recognition of supply chain vulnerabilities exposed by trade tensions with China and the COVID-19 pandemic. The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 created powerful incentives for domestic mineral production and processing by tying EV tax credits to North American sourcing requirements for battery minerals. The Defense Production Act has been invoked to support domestic lithium, nickel, cobalt, graphite, and manganese production. Executive orders have directed federal agencies to streamline mine permitting, while the Department of Energy has funded battery material processing facilities. The CHIPS and Science Act includes provisions for securing semiconductor material supply chains. Despite these efforts, federal permitting reform remains contentious, with environmental groups and mining advocates continuing to debate the appropriate balance between resource development and environmental protection.
International Partnerships
The United States has built an extensive network of critical mineral partnerships, anchored by the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) that includes Australia, Canada, the EU, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Bilateral critical mineral agreements have been signed with Canada, Australia, Japan, and the EU, establishing preferential trade terms and joint investment frameworks. The U.S.-Canada Joint Action Plan on Critical Minerals includes mutual recognition of mineral sourcing for EV tax credit purposes under the Inflation Reduction Act. The U.S. has also invested in mineral projects in allied nations through the Development Finance Corporation and the Export-Import Bank, targeting projects that diversify supply away from Chinese-controlled sources.
Supply Chain Role
United States is primarily a downstream consumer of critical minerals, transforming processed materials into high-value manufactured products including batteries, semiconductors, vehicles, aerospace components, and defense systems. The country's position at the end of the supply chain makes it highly dependent on the reliability and accessibility of upstream mining and midstream processing, both of which are concentrated in a small number of countries. This vulnerability has driven United States to pursue a multi-layered supply chain strategy combining domestic production expansion where feasible, strategic stockpiling, overseas investment in mining and processing, bilateral supply agreements with allied nations, recycling and circular economy development, and research into material substitution. The effectiveness of this strategy will determine whether United States can maintain its manufacturing competitiveness and technological leadership in an era of mineral supply chain geopolitics.
Related Country Profiles
Explore profiles of other nations that share regional ties or overlapping mineral endowments with United States.
Canada
North AmericaKey allied supplier and emerging processing hub for critical minerals in the Western Hemisphere.
Australia
OceaniaGlobal mining powerhouse and largest lithium producer pursuing downstream processing expansion.
China
East AsiaDominant global producer and processor of most critical minerals with unmatched refining capacity.
European Union
EuropeMajor consumer pursuing strategic autonomy through the Critical Raw Materials Act and diversification targets.
United Kingdom
EuropeHistoric mining nation rebuilding critical mineral capabilities through domestic projects and global partnerships.
Japan
East AsiaHighly import-dependent technology manufacturer leading in strategic stockpiling and recycling innovation.