Critical Minerals in Nuclear Power and Radiation
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Nuclear power depends on uranium, on enrichment capacity and on a few metals for reactor components, and the supply is concentrated at two steps. Kazakhstan mined 39% of the world's 60,213 tonnes of uranium in 2024, and Russia's Rosatom holds about 43% of world enrichment capacity (29.1 of 68.1 million separative work units a year in 2025, according to the World Nuclear Association). Hafnium for control rods, zirconium for reactor components, germanium for radiation detectors and tungsten for shielding are smaller markets with their own constraints.
39%
of world uranium mine output in 2024 came from Kazakhstan; Canada 24%, Namibia 12%
Source: World Nuclear Association
43%
of world enrichment capacity in 2025 belongs to Rosatom (29.1 of 68.1 million SWU a year)
Source: World Nuclear Association
76%
of global hafnium supply comes from France, the largest share in the EU 2023 overview table
Which critical minerals does nuclear power rely on?
The table covers the materials where a published source ties the mineral to a nuclear or radiation use. Percentages of world capacity are our arithmetic on the cited figures.
| Material | Nuclear or radiation use | Supply data |
|---|---|---|
| Uranium | Reactor fuel. Added to the U.S. critical minerals list in November 2025 on the Department of Energy's recommendation; also on Canada's list, not on the EU or Australian lists. | Mine output 60,213 tonnes in 2024: Kazakhstan 23,270 (39%), Canada 14,309 (24%), Namibia 7,333 (12%). |
| Enrichment (separative work) | Raises the uranium-235 share of fuel. | 2025 capacity in million SWU a year: Rosatom 29.1 (43%), Urenco 17.3 (25%), CNNC 13.8 (20%), Orano 7.5 (11%); CNNC figure estimated. |
| Hafnium | Control rods. USGS names boron and cadmium-silver-indium alloys as substitutes. The leading U.S. use of hafnium metal is superalloys. | France supplies 76% of global hafnium in the EU 2023 overview table; U.S. unwrought hafnium imports came from Germany (54%), China (21%) and France (12%) in 2021 to 2024. |
| Zirconium | Nuclear applications, for which niobium, stainless steel and tantalum give some substitution; the largest use of zircon itself is ceramics. | Mine output about 1 million tonnes in 2025, down 12%. Australia and South Africa are the leading exporters; metal comes from producers in Oregon and Utah in the U.S. |
| Germanium | High-purity germanium radiation detectors. | Smaller than fiber optics, infrared optics and solar cells as an end use. US germanium metal imports fell 67% in 2025. |
| Tungsten | Radiation shielding and high-density parts; depleted uranium or lead substitute where density or shielding is needed. | China mined 67,000 of 85,000 tonnes (79%) in 2025. |
| Indium | Nuclear reactor control rod alloys; hafnium can replace indium. | China produces 70% of the world total. |
Sources: WNA uranium production, WNA enrichment, USGS zirconium and hafnium, USGS germanium, USGS tungsten, USGS indium, EU 2023 study, Federal Register.
Why is enrichment the bottleneck?
Enrichment is concentrated in four operators, and the largest is Russian. The World Nuclear Association's table puts Rosatom at 29.1 million SWU a year in 2025, against 17.3 for Urenco, 13.8 for CNNC and 7.5 for Orano, and notes that since 2022 the market has been segmented as Western utilities try to diversify away from Russian supply. Russia restricted enriched uranium exports to the United States in November 2024, as a response to U.S. restrictions on Russian uranium for 2024 to 2027 and a full ban from 2028, and Rosatom said deliveries to other countries would continue unchanged. That restriction is listed on the export controls page.
What are the supply risks for reactor metals?
The risks are small-market concentration and byproduct supply. Hafnium is separated from zirconium, and the EU's 2023 assessment found that France is the largest supplier. USGS says world primary hafnium production data were not available, and that hafnium recycling was minimal. Zirconium mineral concentrates come as a coproduct of heavy-mineral sands mining in Florida and Georgia in the United States, and mine output fell by 12% in 2025.
Frequently asked questions
Which countries produce the most uranium?
Kazakhstan produced 23,270 tonnes of uranium in 2024, 39% of the world total of 60,213 tonnes, according to the World Nuclear Association. Canada produced 14,309 tonnes (24%) and Namibia 7,333 tonnes (12%).
Who controls uranium enrichment?
Four operators hold nearly all enrichment capacity. In 2025 Rosatom had 29.1 million SWU a year, Urenco 17.3, CNNC an estimated 13.8 and Orano 7.5, out of a world total of 68.1 million.
What is hafnium used for in nuclear reactors?
Hafnium metal is used in nuclear reactor control rods. USGS says boron or cadmium-silver-indium alloys can substitute for hafnium in control rods, and that the leading use of hafnium metal in the United States is superalloys.
Is uranium a critical mineral?
Uranium is on the U.S. list since November 2025 and on Canada's list. It is not on the EU critical raw materials list or Australia's Critical Minerals List. The U.S. added it on the Department of Energy's recommendation.
Sources
Read on October 13, 2026. Figures on this page come from these documents; where a number is an estimate, the source says so.
- World Nuclear Association: World uranium mining production. Page updated 9 October 2026; 2024 data
- World Nuclear Association: Uranium enrichment. Capacity table from the WNA Nuclear Fuel Report 2025
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: zirconium and hafnium
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: germanium, tungsten and indium. Tungsten and indium chapters at mcs2026-tungsten.pdf and mcs2026-indium.pdf
- European Commission: Study on the Critical Raw Materials for the EU 2023
- Federal Register: Final 2025 List of Critical Minerals
- World Nuclear News: Russia places tit-for-tat ban on US uranium exports (18 November 2024)
