Critical Minerals in Steel and Superalloys
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Steel and superalloys use critical minerals as alloying elements: small additions that change strength, hardness or heat resistance. USGS reports that more than 90% of U.S. vanadium consumption is metallurgical, that niobium goes 77% into steels and 23% into superalloys, that 51% of U.S. cobalt goes into superalloys for aircraft gas turbine engines, and that about 80% of rhenium is used in turbine engine superalloys. Several of these supply chains are concentrated in one country: Brazil mines about 93% of niobium and China about 75% of vanadium.
>90%
of U.S. vanadium consumption in 2025 was metallurgical, mainly alloying iron and steel
77% / 23%
U.S. niobium end use in steels and in superalloys
51%
of U.S. cobalt consumed in superalloys, mainly for aircraft gas turbine engines
~80%
of rhenium used in turbine engine superalloys; 15% in petroleum-reforming catalysts
Which critical minerals does the steel and superalloy industry use?
The table pairs each mineral with its role, the end-use share USGS reports for the United States, the largest mine producer in 2025 and what USGS says about substitutes. Shares are for U.S. consumption, not world consumption.
| Mineral | Role and U.S. end use | Largest producer, 2025 estimate | Substitutes (USGS) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vanadium | Alloying agent in iron and steel (over 90% of U.S. use); also catalysts for maleic anhydride and sulfuric acid. | China, 82,000 of 110,000 tonnes (75%) | Manganese, molybdenum, niobium, titanium and tungsten are interchangeable to a degree in steel; no acceptable substitute in aerospace titanium alloys. |
| Niobium | Mostly ferroniobium for steel (77%); niobium alloys and metal for aerospace superalloys (23%). | Brazil, 104,000 of 112,000 tonnes (93%) | Molybdenum and vanadium in high-strength low-alloy steels; ceramic matrix composites, molybdenum, tantalum or tungsten in superalloys, with performance loss or higher cost. |
| Manganese | Ore consumed for steelmaking, as silicomanganese and ferromanganese. | South Africa, 7.6 of 20 million tonnes of contained manganese (38%) | No satisfactory substitute in its major applications. |
| Chromium | Stainless steel and heat-resisting steel (ferrochromium); superalloys. | South Africa, 23 of 51 million tonnes of chromite ore (45%) | No substitute in stainless steel or superalloys; chromium-containing scrap can replace ferrochromium in some uses. |
| Molybdenum | Alloying agent in cast iron, steel and superalloys; catalysts and lubricants. | China, 97,000 of 260,000 tonnes (37%) | Little substitution in steels and cast irons; boron, chromium, niobium or vanadium in some alloy steels. |
| Nickel | Stainless and alloy steel and nickel-containing alloys, more than 85% of U.S. consumption. | Indonesia, 2.6 of 3.9 million tonnes (67%) | Low-nickel and duplex stainless steels replace austenitic grades in construction. |
| Tungsten | About 60% of U.S. use is cemented carbide for cutting and wear-resistant parts; the rest is alloys, specialty steels and electrical uses. | China, 67,000 of 85,000 tonnes (79%) | Molybdenum steels replace tungsten steels, although most still contain tungsten; most carbide substitutes reduce rather than replace tungsten. |
| Cobalt | Superalloys 51%, chemicals 25%, other metallic uses 15%, cemented carbides 9% (U.S.). | Democratic Republic of the Congo, about 73% of world output | Nickel-base alloys or ceramics in jet engines, with product performance loss or higher cost. |
| Rhenium | Improves strength above 1,000 degrees Celsius in nickel-base superalloys: about 80% of end use; petroleum catalysts 15%. | Byproduct of molybdenum roasting; U.S. primary output 9,800 kilograms | Iridium and tin catalysts have reached commercial use in some catalyst applications. |
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 chapters on vanadium, niobium, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, nickel, cobalt and rhenium. Percentages of world output are our arithmetic on USGS figures.
Why is supply concentrated for steel alloying metals?
Supply is concentrated because the ore bodies are. Brazil produces 93% of the world's niobium and China produces 75% of its vanadium, according to USGS estimates for 2025. The EU's 2023 assessment, which looks at the bottleneck stage, found a similar picture: Brazil supplies about 89% of niobium, China 62% of vanadium and 86% of tungsten, and South Africa 29% of manganese. The U.S. has not produced manganese ore of 20% or more manganese since 1970, has not reported significant niobium mining since 1959, and has not mined tungsten commercially since 2015.
Which of these minerals are byproducts?
Rhenium and cobalt are produced mainly as byproducts. U.S. rhenium comes from roasting molybdenum concentrates from porphyry copper-molybdenum deposits in Arizona and Montana, and the U.S. also recovers rhenium from nickel-base superalloy scrap and spent oil-refining catalysts. U.S. cobalt supply comes from imports and scrap, with the Eagle Mine in Michigan producing cobalt-bearing nickel concentrate that is exported. A byproduct cannot be scaled without raising output of its host metal, which is covered on the byproduct risk page.
Frequently asked questions
Which critical minerals are used in steel?
Vanadium, niobium, manganese, chromium, molybdenum and nickel are the main critical minerals used in steel. USGS reports that over 90% of U.S. vanadium use is metallurgical, that 77% of U.S. niobium goes into steels, and that stainless and alloy steels take more than 85% of U.S. nickel consumption.
Which critical minerals are used in superalloys?
Cobalt, rhenium, niobium, chromium, molybdenum and nickel are used in superalloys. USGS says 51% of U.S. cobalt and about 80% of rhenium go into superalloys, mainly for aircraft gas turbine engines, and 23% of U.S. niobium goes into superalloys.
Can other metals replace vanadium or niobium in steel?
Partly. USGS says manganese, molybdenum, niobium, titanium and tungsten are to a degree interchangeable with vanadium as steel alloying elements, and that molybdenum and vanadium can replace niobium in high-strength low-alloy steels. There is no acceptable substitute for vanadium in aerospace titanium alloys.
Which country dominates niobium supply?
Brazil dominates niobium. USGS estimates Brazil mined 104,000 of the world's 112,000 tonnes in 2025, and the EU's 2023 assessment put the Brazilian share of global niobium supply at about 89%.
Sources
Read on October 13, 2026. Figures on this page come from these documents; where a number is an estimate, the source says so.
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: vanadium
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: niobium
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: manganese
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: chromium
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: molybdenum
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: nickel, cobalt, rhenium and tungsten. Chapters read as PDFs; nickel, rhenium and tungsten at mcs2026-nickel.pdf, mcs2026-rhenium.pdf and mcs2026-tungsten.pdf
- European Commission: Study on the Critical Raw Materials for the EU 2023. Table A, supplier shares at the bottleneck stage
