Critical Minerals Supply Chain: From Mine to Manufacturer

The critical minerals supply chain is among the most complex and geopolitically sensitive value chains in the global economy. Unlike commodities such as oil or wheat, which follow relatively straightforward extraction-to-consumption pathways, critical minerals pass through multiple technically specialized stages, each of which may be dominated by a different country or small group of companies. A single kilogram of battery-grade lithium hydroxide, for instance, may originate from a brine deposit in Chile, undergo concentration in a local facility, be shipped to China for chemical conversion, and ultimately arrive at a cathode plant in South Korea before reaching an electric vehicle assembly line in Germany.

This geographic and industrial fragmentation creates a web of dependencies that governments and companies are only now beginning to map comprehensively. The COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine conflict, and China's 2023 export controls on gallium and germanium each exposed how disruptions at a single node can cascade through the entire chain. As nations pursue ambitious clean energy targets, secure and resilient supply chains for critical minerals have become a matter of national economic security.

The pages in this section provide a detailed, stage-by-stage guide to the critical minerals value chain. From initial exploration and geological surveys through mining, beneficiation, refining, chemical processing, and manufacturing, each page examines the technologies involved, the dominant players, the environmental and social considerations, and the strategic chokepoints that define the modern critical minerals landscape.