Chemical Processing of Critical Minerals
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Chemical processing converts concentrates into the oxides, salts and metals that manufacturers buy, and it is where supply is most concentrated. The EU's 2023 assessment found China held 94% of gallium processing, 91% of magnesium, 86% of tungsten, 85% of light rare earths and 100% of heavy rare earths. USGS records that in the United States tellurium and selenium were not refined in 2025, indium was not recovered from ores, and the only gallium refiner worked from imported low-purity metal and scrap.
100%
of heavy rare earth processing is in China; light rare earths 85%
8,900 t
of rare earth compounds and metals produced in the U.S. in 2025, against 120 tonnes in 2021
5
U.S. companies produce cobalt chemicals, while the Eagle Mine ships its cobalt-bearing concentrate abroad
Which processing steps happen in the United States?
The table summarises what USGS reports for each mineral in 2025. It shows a gap at the refining step for the minor metals.
| Mineral | What USGS reports |
|---|---|
| Gallium | No primary gallium recovered since 1987. One New York company refines high-purity gallium from imported low-purity metal and new scrap. |
| Germanium | A Utah company makes wafers and an Oklahoma company makes germanium tetrachloride, both from imported and recycled germanium. |
| Indium | Not recovered from ores; companies make alloys, compounds, high-purity metal and solders from imported indium metal. |
| Tellurium and selenium | Copper telluride and crude selenium come from two copper refineries; neither metal is refined in the U.S. and the material is exported for processing. |
| Cobalt | About five companies produce cobalt chemicals; the Eagle Mine concentrate is exported. |
| Lithium | Two companies make downstream lithium compounds from domestic or imported lithium carbonate, chloride and hydroxide; production data are withheld. |
| Zirconium and hafnium | Metal is produced by one company in Oregon and one in Utah; the Oregon producer and at least five other companies make zirconium chemicals. |
| Beryllium | A Utah company mines bertrandite and converts it and imported beryl to hydroxide; an Ohio plant makes metal, oxide and beryllium-copper master alloy. |
| Rare earths | Mined and processed domestically in 2025; U.S. production of compounds and metals was 8,900 tonnes against 120 in 2021, and net import reliance for compounds and metals was 67%. |
| Molybdenum and rhenium | Three roasting plants convert concentrate to molybdic oxide; rhenium products are made from roasting byproducts. |
| Fluorspar | Used to make anhydrous hydrogen fluoride in Louisiana and Texas; the U.S. was 100% net import reliant for fluorspar excluding stockpile sales. |
Source: USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 chapters on gallium, germanium, indium, tellurium, cobalt, lithium, zirconium and hafnium, beryllium, rare earths, molybdenum and fluorspar.
Where is processing concentrated worldwide?
The EU's 2023 assessment records the largest supplier at the bottleneck stage. China is the largest in processing for gallium (94%), magnesium (91%), tungsten (86%), bismuth (70%) and the rare earths (100% heavy, 85% light), figures that exceed China's mining share for tungsten (79%) and rare earths (69%) in the USGS estimates. Copper shows the pattern in refining: China mined 8% of the world's copper in 2025 and produced 48% of refined copper. See why China dominates processing for the causes.
What does it take to add processing capacity?
Adding capacity takes new plants and, increasingly, public money. The Department of War granted $29.9 million in 2025 for a Louisiana demonstration plant to recover gallium and scandium from industrial waste, and the Department of Energy announced up to $6 million for gallium recovery research and $1 billion of initiatives including germanium refining. Canada's July 2026 agreement with Teck covers germanium and antimony at Trail. The details are on the chip metals page and the national security page.
Frequently asked questions
What is chemical processing in mineral supply chains?
Chemical processing converts concentrates into oxides, salts, chemicals and metals, for example cobalt chemicals, lithium carbonate or hydroxide, tellurium and germanium dioxide. It follows mining and beneficiation and precedes manufacturing.
Which critical minerals does the United States not refine?
USGS says tellurium and selenium were not refined in the United States in 2025, indium was not recovered from ores, and no primary gallium has been recovered since 1987. Copper telluride, Michigan platinum group metal concentrates and Eagle Mine nickel-cobalt concentrate are exported for processing.
Which country dominates processing of critical minerals?
China. In the EU's 2023 assessment China held 94% of gallium processing, 91% of magnesium, 86% of tungsten and 100% of heavy rare earths. USGS adds that China is the leading refiner of cobalt.
How much rare earth processing does the United States do?
U.S. production of rare earth compounds and metals was 8,900 tonnes in 2025 against 120 tonnes in 2021, and net import reliance for these products was 67% in 2025 against more than 95% in 2021 and 2022, according to USGS.
Sources
Read on October 13, 2026. Figures on this page come from these documents; where a number is an estimate, the source says so.
- USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026: gallium, germanium, indium, tellurium, cobalt, lithium, zirconium and hafnium, beryllium, rare earths, molybdenum, fluorspar. Chapters read as PDFs; each is linked under the table
- European Commission: Study on the Critical Raw Materials for the EU 2023. Overview table of main global producers by stage
